Morris v. Snappy Car Rental, Inc. — 84 N.Y.2d 21

Majority

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[637 NE2d 253, 614 NYS2d 362]

Barbara J. Morris, Appellant-Respondent, v Snappy Car Rental, Inc., Respondent-Appellant.

Argued May 3, 1994;

decided June 16, 1994

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POINTS OF COUNSEL

H. Jeffrey Marcus, Buffalo, and Thomas H. Burton for appellant-respondent.

I. The Court below’s holding is inconsistent with the legislative intent underlying Vehicle and Traffic Law § 388 and existing case law. (Motor Vehicle Acc. Indem. Corp. v Continental Natl. Am. Group Co., 35 NY2d 260 ; Wynn v Middleton, 184 AD2d 1019 ; Matter of Liberty Mut. Ins. Co. v Clench, 180 AD2d 684 ; Barlow v Hertz Corp., 160 AD2d 580 ; Rosado v Eveready Ins. Co., 34 NY2d 43 ; Randazzo v Cunningham, 56 AD2d 702 , 43 NY2d 937 ; Fried v Seippel, 80 NY2d 32 ; Public Serv. Mut. Ins. Co. v Goldfarb, 53 NY2d 392 ; Tom Sawyer Country Day School v Providence Wash. Ins. Co., 108 AD2d 810 , 65 NY2d 608 ; Mount Vernon Fire Ins. Co. v Travelers Indem. Co., 63 AD2d 254 , 47 NY2d 575 .) II. The contract provisions relied upon by Snappy do not provide that plaintiff indemnify Snappy for her own injuries. (Hooper Assocs. v AGS Computers, 74 NY2d 487 ; Pennsylvania Gen. Ins. Co. v Austin Powder Co., 115 AD2d 243 , 68 NY2d 465 ; Two Guys from Harrison v S.F.R. Realty Assocs., 63 NY2d 396 ; Loba v Carey, 29 NY2d 302 ; Drzewinski v Atlantic Scaffold & Ladder Co., 70 NY2d 774 ; Niagara Frontier Transp. Auth. v Tri-Delta Constr. Corp., 107 AD2d 450 , 65 NY2d 1038 ; Evington v Syracuse Equip. Co., 170 AD2d 744 .) III. Under the circumstances of this case, the indemnification agreement embedded in the context of an adhesion contract should be declared void. (Dalton v Educational Testing Serv., 155 Misc 2d 214 ; Levine v Shell Oil Co., 28 NY2d 205 ; Hogeland v Sibley, Lindsay & Curr Co., 42 NY2d 153 ; Sabiosky v Gordon Co., 73 NY2d 133 ; Matter of State of New York [Abrams] v Ford Motor Co., 74 NY2d 495 ; Morris v New York Football Giants, 150 Misc 2d 271 .) IV. There are material issues of fact as to whether plaintiff assented to Snappy’s rental contract. (Alvarez v Prospect Hosp., 68 NY2d 320 ; Tri-City Renta-Car & Leasing Corp. v Vaillancourt, 33 AD2d 613 ; Matter of Tanen

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boum Textile Co. v Schlanger, 287 NY 400 ; Matter of Philip Export Corp. [Leathertone, Inc.], 275 App Div 102 ; Egan v Kollsman Instrument Corp., 21 NY2d 160 , cert denied sub nom. American Airlines v Egan, 390 US 1039 ; Matter of Allstate Ins. Co. [La Perta] 42 AD2d 104 ; Hooper Assocs. v AGS Computers, 74 NY2d 487 .)

Burgio, Kita & Curvin, Buffalo (Steven P. Curvin of counsel), for respondent-appellant.

I. Snappy’s claim for indemnification is not contrary to the public policy of New York State. (State of New York v Stewart’s Ice Cream Coindemnif., 64 NY2d 83 ; Rosado v Proctor & Schwartz, 66 NY2d 21 ; McDermott v City of New York, 50 NY2d 211 ; Schwalm v County of Monroe, 158 AD2d 994 ; Martinez v Fiore, 90 AD2d 483 ; L. B. Smith, Inc. v Bradley & Williams, 88 AD2d 782 , 58 NY2d 672 ; Levine v Shell Oil Co., 28 NY2d 205 ; Murray v Rupp Rental Corp., 39 AD2d 637 ; Arocho v Town of Brookhaven, 71 AD2d 635 , 51 NY2d 778 ; Colton v New York Hosp., 53 AD2d 588 .) II. The ication agreement between plaintiff and Snappy is not unconscionable. (Martin Delicatessen v Schumacher, 52 NY2d 105 ; Raphael v Booth Mem. Hosp., 67 AD2d 702 ; Gill-man v Chase Manhattan Bank, 73 NY2d 1 ; Douglas EllimanGibbons & Ives v Kellerman, 172 AD2d 307 , 78 NY2d 856 ; Kadan v Volkswagen of Am., 111 AD2d 540 ; Brent-Grand v Megavolt Corp., 97 AD2d 783 ; Nalezenec v Blue Cross, 172 AD2d 1004 ; Evington v Syracuse Equip. Co., 170 AD2d 744 ; Denton Leasing Corp. v Breezy Point Surf Club, 133 AD2d 95 .) III. Plaintiff cannot avoid the terms of the contract by relying on her own failure to read the contract or have the terms of the contract explained to her. (Sofia v Hughes, 162 AD2d 518 ; Manufacturers & Traders Trust Co. v Commercial Door & Hardware, 51 AD2d 362 ; James Talcott, Inc. v Wilson Hosiery Co., 32 AD2d 524 ; Fiorentino Assocs. v Green, 85 AD2d 419 ; American Utex Intil. v ICC Corp., 74 AD2d 747 , 52 NY2d 888 ; Blair v County of Albany, 127 AD2d 950 ; Rodas v Manitaras, 159 AD2d 341 .) IV. Giving effect to the indemnity agreement should result in dismissal of plaintiff’s claim against Snappy Car Rental, Inc. (Seneca v Novaro, 80 AD2d 909 ; Wandsch neider v Bekeny, 75 Misc 2d 32 .) V. Snappy Car Rental, Inc. is entitled to the costs and expenses of defending this lawsuit, including reasonable attorneys’ fees, from plaintiff. (Merchants Mut. Ins. Co. v Saxon Indus., 170 AD2d 654 ; Lavorato v Bethlehem Steel Corp., 91 AD2d 1184 .)

Rivkin, Radler & Kremer, Uniondale (Arthur J. Kremer,

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Evan H. Krinick and Christine M. Metzner of counsel), for Enterprise Rent-A-Car and others, amici curiae.

The established case law and public policy of this State mandate that indemnification provisions in automobile rental agreements be upheld without exception. (McDermott v City of New York, 50 NY2d 211 ; Schubert v Schubert Wagon Co., 249 NY 253 ; Dunn v Uvalde Asphalt Paving Co., 175 NY 214 ; McFall v Compagnie Mar. Belge [Lloyd Royal], 304 NY 314 ; New England Mut. Life Ins. Co. v Caruso, 73 NY2d 74 ; Austro v Niagara Mohawk Power Corp., 66 NY2d 674 ; Public Serv. Mut. Ins. Co. v Goldfarb, 53 NY2d 392 ; Naso v Lafata, 4 NY2d 585 ; Traub v Dinzler, 309 NY 395 ; Motor Vehicle Acc. Indem. Corp. v Continental Natl. Am. Group Co., 35 NY2d 260 .)

Cellino, Bernstein, Dwyer & Barnes, Buffalo (Robert E. Dwyer of counsel), for New York State Trial Lawyers Association, amicus curiae.

It is the public policy of the State of New York that one injured by the negligent operation of a motor vehicle should have recourse to a financially responsible defendant. (Continental Auto Lease Corp. v Campbell, 19 NY2d 350 ; Cohen v Neustadter, 247 NY 207 ; New England Mut. Life Ins. Co. v Caruso, 73 NY2d 74 ; Public Serv. Mut. Ins. Co. v Goldfarb, 53 NY2d 392 .)

OPINION OF THE COURT

In this personal injury action by plaintiff car renter against defendant car rental agency, we are required to decide whether and to what extent plaintiff is bound by an indemnification provision contained in the rental agreement requiring her to indemnify defendant for liability arising out of the use of the vehicle which exceeds the insurance coverage defendant is required to maintain under State law.

On October 5, 1989, plaintiff Barbara J. Morris entered into a 30-day rental agreement with defendant Snappy Car Rental (Snappy). On October 8, 1989, plaintiff was injured when the vehicle she leased, a 1990 Dodge Spirit, collided with another vehicle owned by Laura A. Sherry. Plaintiff’s husband, Kenneth Morris, a permissive user of the vehicle under the rental agreement, was driving the vehicle at the time of the accident. The Sherry vehicle was being driven by Eric Sherry, who was delivering pizza for his employer, Franco’s Pizzeria. As a

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result of the accident, plaintiff sustained a fractured right femur for which she has undergone three corrective surgeries.

Plaintiff commenced this action and named Eric Sherry, Laura Sherry, Snappy, and 864 Kenmore Avenue, Inc., doing business as Franco’s Pizzeria, as defendants. The complaint alleged that plaintiff’s injuries were caused by the negligence of Eric Sherry and Kenneth Morris and asserted causes of action based on vicarious liability against Laura Sherry and the two corporate defendants. In its answer, Snappy denied the substantive allegations of plaintiff’s complaint and asserted as a fourth affirmative defense that plaintiff had covenanted not to sue Snappy. As a fifth affirmative defense and counterclaim, Snappy asserted that it was entitled to full indemnification pursuant to the terms and conditions of the rental agreement.

Snappy moved for summary judgment dismissing plaintiff’s complaint based on the indemnification counterclaim. Plaintiff cross-moved for summary judgment dismissing Snappy’s counterclaim and for partial summary judgment on Snappy’s liability based on Vehicle and Traffic Law § 388. In support of its motion, Snappy argued that the indemnification agreement required dismissal of the complaint or, alternatively, entitled it to judgment against plaintiff for any amounts she recovered against Snappy. Snappy also asserted that it was entitled to costs, disbursements, expenses, and attorney’s fees under the rental agreement.

Supreme Court denied Snappy’s motion for summary judgment dismissing the complaint, granted Snappy’s motion for a conditional order of summary judgment on the counterclaim for indemnification to the extent that plaintiff recovered any damages from Snappy, granted Snappy’s request for attorney’s fees, expenses and costs, and denied plaintiff’s cross motion for summary judgment.

The Appellate Division, with two Justices dissenting, modified the order of Supreme Court "to provide that Snappy’s motion for a conditional order of summary judgment is granted in part on its counterclaim for indemnification from plaintiff to the extent Snappy may be required to pay plaintiff monies over and above those to which plaintiff is entitled pursuant to section 370 (1), (3) and section 388 of the Vehicle and Traffic Law and to deny Snappy costs and expenses including reasonable attorney’s fees.” ( 189 AD2d 115 , 124.) As so modified, the court affirmed. Both parties appeal pursuant

II

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to leave granted by the Appellate Division which certified the following question: "Was the order of this Court entered March 12,1993, properly made?”

At common law, the owner of a motor vehicle who permitted another to operate it was not liable for the driver’s negligence except under theories of respondeat superior or agency (see, Plath v Justus, 28 NY2d 16 , 20; Rolfe v Hewitt, 227 NY 486 ). Vehicle and Traffic Law § 388^[1] was enacted to change this common-law rule and to impose liability upon the owner of a vehicle "for the negligence of a person legally operating the car with the permission, express or implied, of the owner” (Gochee v Wagner, 257 NY 344 , 346, overruled on other grounds Kalechman v Drew Auto Rental, 33 NY2d 397 ). The statute created liability where none previously existed, the nature of that liability being vicarious and its predicate purely statutory (Gochee, supra, at 347 ). Section 388’s enactment was designed to ensure access by injured persons to "a financially responsible insured person against whom to recover for injuries” (Plath, 28 NY2d, at 20 , supra; see, MVAIC v Continental Natl. Am. Group Co., 35 NY2d 260 , 264), and to "remove the hardship which the common-law rule visited upon innocent persons by preventing 'an owner from escaping liability by saying that his car was being used without authority or not in his business’ ” (Mills v Gabriel, 259 App Div 60 , 61-62 [quoting Plaumbo v Ryan, 213 App Div 517 , 518]). We stated recently that the "linkage of an owner’s vicarious liability to an owner’s obligation to maintain adequate insurance coverage suggests that the Legislature’s goal was to ensure that owners of vehicles that are subject to regulation in New York 'act responsibly’ with regard to those vehicles” (Fried v Seippel, 80 NY2d 32 , 41).

In light of these principles, the Appellate Division was unquestionably correct in concluding that an attempt to disclaim completely the liability imposed by section 388 would be contrary to public policy. The more difficult question presented for our consideration, however, is whether the Appellate Division’s decision is inconsistent with the legislative intent underlying section 388 to the extent it held that

1 This provision was originally enacted by the Legislature in 1924 as section 282-e of the Highway Law and later reenacted as section 59 of the Vehicle and Traffic Law in 1929.

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Snappy can legally disclaim that portion of its liability which exceeds the amount for which motor vehicle owners are required to be insured under sections 388 and 370 of the Vehicle and Traffic Law.

Under the statutory scheme, an owner is required to maintain a minimum liability coverage for bodily injury and for death, but nothing in the statute’s scheme, language, or legislative history suggests that a lessor/owner cannot by contract secure indemnification from a lessee/driver for liability stemming from the latter’s negligence which exceeds the amounts for which owners are required to be insured.

It has long been recognized that in granting an injured party a right of action under section 388, the Legislature did not otherwise intend to change any of the rules of liability in this area (see, e.g., Sikora v Keillor, 17 AD2d 6 , 8, affd 13 NY2d 610 ; Mills v Gabriel, 259 App Div 60 , 61-62, supra; Singerman Bus Corp. v American Fid. Fire Ins. Co., 44 Misc 2d 4 , 7; 8 NY Jur 2d, Automobiles and Other Vehicles, § 693). The law concerning indemnification agreements is, as the Appellate Division noted, "long standing and well settled.” ( 189 AD2d, at 121 .) As this Court recognized in McDermott v City of New York ( 50 NY2d 211 , 216-217), the right of indemnification springs conceptually from principles of equity and finds its expression in contract, express or implied. We stated, "It is nothing short of simple fairness to recognize that '[a] person who, in whole or in part, has discharged a duty which is owed by him but which as between himself and another should have been discharged by the other, is entitled to indemnity’ ” (id., at 217 [quoting Restatement of Restitution §76]).

It is axiomatic concerning legislative enactments in derogation of common law, and especially those creating liability where none previously existed, that they are deemed to abrogate the common law only to the extent required by the clear import of the statutory language (see, Psota v Long Is. R. R. Co., 246 NY 388 , 393 [section 388 "may not be presumed to make any innovation upon the common law further than is required by the mischief to be remedied”]; see also, B & F Bldg. Corp. v Liebig, 76 NY2d 689 , 693). In view of the fact that we are to narrowly construe the terms of section 388, we can discern no basis for inferring that the Legislature, in its desire to ensure that owners "act responsibly”, intended to go so far as to abrogate the right of indemnification. Indeed,

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we could not do so here without simultaneously disparaging the important countervailing right of freedom of contract, which is itself deeply rooted in public policy. As the majority at the Appellate Division stated, there are no statutory or common-law prohibitions precluding defendant’s indemnification provision; indeed, "[t]o the contrary, the common law permits a vehicle owner/lessor to recover indemnity from a negligent user/lessee, even absent an express indemnity provision” ( 189 AD2d 115 , 121, supra [citations omitted]).

MVAIC v Continental Natl. Am. Group Co. (supra), upon which plaintiff relies, involved the attempted evasion of section 388’s liability altogether through the imposition of restrictions and conditions on the use of the leased vehicle. The restrictions sought to be imposed there, if upheld, would have rendered an injured victim devoid of recourse to a financially responsible defendant, contrary to the legislative intent of Vehicle and Traffic Law § 388. As such, we concluded that the restrictions contained in the rental agreement violated the public policy of this State. This case presents a different situation. Here, the rental agency does not seek to entirely exculpate itself from section 388’s liability. Rather, the rental agreement explicitly acknowledges that Snappy’s right of indemnification is subject to other provisions of State law, in this case section 388. Paragraph 6 of the rental agreement provides that Snappy will indemnify and hold harmless a renter to the extent required by State law and states additionally that "Renter agrees to indemnify Snappy for any loss, liability or expense arising out of the use of the vehicle which exceeds the limits of the indemnification and hold harmless provision stated above.”^[2]

2 Paragraph 6 provides, inter alla, that Snappy will indemnify renters and authorized operators for bodily injury and property damage claims arising out of the authorized use of the vehicle up to the minimum dollar amounts required by State law only if required by statute or the express terms of the agreement. In the event the renter is covered by any other insurance, the indemnification provision is said to constitute excess coverage. Further, if any of the conditions or restrictions contained in the indemnity provision conflict with applicable State law, then the provision is considered amended to conform with State law. Paragraph 6 requires the renter to indemnify Snappy for any loss or liability in excess of the limits of the indemnification provision, i.e., for any amounts Snappy is required to pay in excess of the minimum imposed under State law. In the event that there is no indemnification requirement under State law, the renter is to indemnify Snappy for all loss, liability and expense arising out of the use of the vehicle.

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Ill

We do not accept plaintiffs contention that the indemnification agreement is void and unenforceable because it was part of an adhesion contract or the result of procedural unconscionability in the contract formation process. Plaintiffs claim must be judged "by whether the party seeking to enforce the contract has used high pressure tactics or deceptive language in the contract and whether there is inequality of bargaining power between the parties” (Sablosky v Gordon Co., 73 NY2d 133 , 139). Plaintiff signed her name immediately beneath the following prominently displayed language: "I HAVE READ, UNDERSTAND AND AGREE TO BE BOUND BY THE TERMS AND CONDITIONS ON BOTH SIDES OF THIS RENTAL AGREEMENT.” Plaintiff not only signed the contract, she also initialled the space next to the provision which permitted her to decline to purchase additional personal accident insurance.

Nothing in the record indicates that plaintiff, a high school graduate who attended college, was prevented from reading the agreement or asking that its contents be explained to her by one of Snappy’s representatives. She has made no allegation that she was the victim of deceptive or high pressure tactics (see, Gillman v Chase Manhattan Bank, 73 NY2d 1 , 11). The contract provisions at issue were set forth in a clear and legible manner and were printed in the size required by CPLR 4544. Plaintiff has proffered no basis as would excuse her from being bound by the terms of the rental agreement. Although plaintiff would use to her advantage the fact that she did not read the terms of the rental agreement and was unaware of its indemnification language, this is simply no bar to enforcement of the rental agreement. Freedom of contract permits plaintiff, as lessee, to agree to limit her statutory protection of recourse against the owner under section 388.

Finally, we agree with the Appellate Division that Snappy is not entitled to the costs and expenses of litigation, including attorney’s fees.

Accordingly, the order of the Appellate Division should be affirmed, without costs, and the certified question answered in the affirmative.

Chief Judge Kaye and Judges Simons, Titone, Bellacosa, Smith and Levine concur.

Order affirmed, etc.

Cases cited

Motor Vehicle Accident Indemnification Corp. v. Continental National American Group Co. 35 NY2d 260 N.Y. 1974-10-08 at 264 p. 23, p. 25, p. 27
Wynn v. Middleton 184 AD2d 1019 N.Y. App. Div. 1992-06-05 p. 23
Liberty Mutual Insurance v. Clench 180 AD2d 684 N.Y. App. Div. 1992-02-10 p. 23
Barlow v. Hertz Corp. 160 AD2d 580 N.Y. App. Div. 1990-04-24 p. 23
Rosado v. Eveready Insurance 34 NY2d 43 N.Y. 1974-05-09 p. 23
Randazzo v. Cunningham 43 NY2d 937 N.Y. 1978-02-22 p. 23
Fried v. Seippel 80 NY2d 32 N.Y. 1992-06-04 at 41 p. 23, p. 27
Public Service Mutual Insurance v. Goldfarb 53 NY2d 392 N.Y. 1981-07-07 p. 23, p. 25
Tom Sawyer Country Day School v. Providence Washington Insurance 108 AD2d 810 N.Y. App. Div. 1985-02-11 p. 23
Mount Vernon Fire Insurance v. Travelers Indemnity Co. 63 AD2d 254 N.Y. App. Div. 1978-07-18 p. 23
Mount Vernon Fire Insurance v. Travelers Indemnity Co. 47 NY2d 575 N.Y. 1979-07-03 p. 23
Hooper Associates Ltd. v. AGS Computers, Inc. 74 NY2d 487 N.Y. 1989-11-21 p. 23, p. 24
Pennsylvania General Insurance v. Austin Powder Co. 68 NY2d 465 N.Y. 1986-11-25 p. 23
Two Guys v. S.F.R. Realty Associates 63 NY2d 396 N.Y. 1984-11-20 p. 23
Laba v. Carey 29 NY2d 302 N.Y. 1971-11-24 p. 23
Richard Drzewinski v. Atlantic Scaffold & Ladder Co. 70 NY2d 774 N.Y. 1987-10-08 p. 23
Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority v. Tri-Delta Construction Corp. 107 AD2d 450 N.Y. App. Div. 1985-04-05 p. 23
Evington v. Syracuse Equipment Co. 170 AD2d 744 N.Y. App. Div. 1991-02-07 p. 23, p. 24
Dalton v. Educational Testing Service of Princeton 155 Misc 2d 214 N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1992-08-07 p. 23
Levine v. Shell Oil Co. 28 NY2d 205 N.Y. 1971-04-08 p. 23, p. 24
Hogeland v. Sibley 42 NY2d 153 N.Y. 1977-06-16 p. 23
Sablosky v. Edward S. Gordon Co. 73 NY2d 133 N.Y. 1989-02-21 at 139 p. 23, p. 30
State v. Ford Motor Co. 74 NY2d 495 N.Y. 1989-11-28 p. 23
Morris v. New York Football Giants, Inc. 150 Misc 2d 271 N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1991-10-22 p. 23
Alvarez v. Prospect Hospital 68 NY2d 320 N.Y. 1986-11-11 p. 23
Tanenbaum Textile Co. v. Schlanger 287 NY 400 N.Y. 1942-03-05 p. 24
Egan v. Kollsman Instrument Corp. 21 NY2d 160 N.Y. 1967-12-28 p. 24
In re the Arbitration between Allstate Insurance & La Perta 42 AD2d 104 N.Y. App. Div. 1973-07-02 p. 24
State v. Stewart's Ice Cream Co. 64 NY2d 83 N.Y. 1984-12-18 p. 24
Rosado v. Proctor & Schwartz, Inc. 66 NY2d 21 N.Y. 1985-10-15 p. 24
McDermott v. City of New York 50 NY2d 211 N.Y. 1980-05-01 at 216-217 p. 24, p. 25, p. 28
Schwalm v. County of Monroe 158 AD2d 994 N.Y. App. Div. 1990-02-02 p. 24
L. B. Smith, Inc. v. Bradley & Williams, Inc. 88 AD2d 782 N.Y. App. Div. 1982-05-21 p. 24
L. B. Smith, Inc. v. Bradley & Williams, Inc. 58 NY2d 672 N.Y. 1982-11-18 p. 24
Arocho v. Town of Brookhaven 71 AD2d 635 N.Y. App. Div. 1979-07-16 p. 24
Arocho v. Brookhaven 51 NY2d 778 N.Y. 1980-10-07 p. 24
Joseph Martin, Jr., Delicatessen, Inc. v. Schumacher 52 NY2d 105 N.Y. 1981-01-20 p. 24
Gillman v. Chase Manhattan Bank, N. A. 73 NY2d 1 N.Y. 1988-12-22 at 11 p. 24, p. 30
Douglas Elliman-Gibbons & Ives, Inc. v. Kellerman 172 AD2d 307 N.Y. App. Div. 1991-04-16 p. 24
Kadan v. Volkswagen of America, Inc. 111 AD2d 540 N.Y. App. Div. 1985-05-23 p. 24
Brent-Grand v. Megavolt Corp. 97 AD2d 783 N.Y. App. Div. 1983-11-14 p. 24
Nalezenec v. Blue Cross of Western New York 172 AD2d 1004 N.Y. App. Div. 1991-04-26 p. 24
Denton Leasing Corp. v. Breezy Point Surf Club, Inc. 133 AD2d 95 N.Y. App. Div. 1987-08-10 p. 24
Sofio v. Hughes 162 AD2d 518 N.Y. App. Div. 1990-06-11 p. 24
Manufacturers & Traders Trust Co. v. Commercial Door & Hardware, Inc. 51 AD2d 362 N.Y. App. Div. 1976-04-02 p. 24
Imero Fiorentino Associates, Inc. v. Green 85 AD2d 419 N.Y. App. Div. 1982-03-16 p. 24
American Utex International, Ltd. v. ICC Corp. 74 AD2d 747 N.Y. App. Div. 1980-03-06 p. 24
American Utex International, Ltd. v. ICC Corp. 52 NY2d 888 N.Y. 1981-01-20 p. 24
Blair v. County of Albany 127 AD2d 950 N.Y. App. Div. 1987-02-26 p. 24
Rodas v. Manitaras 159 AD2d 341 N.Y. App. Div. 1990-03-20 p. 24
Wandschneider v. Bekeny 75 Misc 2d 32 N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1973-06-14 p. 24
Merchants Mutual Insurance v. Saxon Industries Inc. 170 AD2d 654 N.Y. App. Div. 1991-02-25 p. 24
Schubert v. August Schubert Wagon Co. 249 NY 253 N.Y. 1928-11-20 p. 25
Dunn v. Uvalde Asphalt Paving Co. 175 NY 214 N.Y. 1903-05-22 p. 25
McFall v. Compagnie Maritime Belge (Lloyd Royal) S. A. 304 NY 314 N.Y. 1952-07-15 p. 25
New England Mutual Life Insurance v. Caruso 73 NY2d 74 N.Y. 1989-02-14 p. 25
Austro v. Niagara Mohawk Power Corp. 66 NY2d 674 N.Y. 1985-10-10 p. 25
Naso v. Lafata 4 NY2d 585 N.Y. 1958-06-25 p. 25
Traub v. Dinzler 309 NY 395 N.Y. 1955-12-28 p. 25
Continental Auto Lease Corp. v. Campbell 19 NY2d 350 N.Y. 1967-04-11 p. 25
Cohen v. Neustadter 247 NY 207 N.Y. 1928-01-10 p. 25
Morris v. Snappy Car Rental, Inc. 189 AD2d 115 N.Y. App. Div. 1993-03-12 at 124, at 121 p. 26, p. 29
Plath v. Justus 28 NY2d 16 N.Y. 1971-02-17 at 20 p. 27
Rolfe v. Hewitt 227 NY 486 N.Y. 1920-01-06 p. 27
Gochee v. Wagner 257 NY 344 N.Y. 1931-11-17 at 346 p. 27
Kalechman v. Drew Auto Rental, Inc. 33 NY2d 397 N.Y. 1973-12-27 p. 27
Sikora v. Keillor 17 AD2d 6 N.Y. App. Div. 1962-07-09 at 8 p. 28
Sikora v. Keillor 13 NY2d 610 N.Y. 1963-05-02 p. 28
Singerman Bus Corp. v. American Fidelity Fire Insurance 44 Misc 2d 4 N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1964-06-29 at 7 p. 28
Psota v. Long Island Railroad 246 NY 388 N.Y. 1927-11-22 at 393 p. 28
B & F Building Corp. v. Liebig 76 NY2d 689 N.Y. 1990-11-29 at 693 p. 28